Overview

Cellular processes such as building and breaking down complex molecules occur through stepwise chemical reactions. Some of these chemical reactions are spontaneous and release energy, whereas others require energy to proceed. Cells often couple the energy-releasing reaction with the energy-requiring one to carry out important cell functions. 

Energy in adenosine triphosphate or ATP molecules is easily accessible to do work. ATP powers the majority of energy-requiring cellular reactions. Cells couple the ATP hydrolysis' with endergonic reactions allowing them to proceed. One example of energy coupling using ATP involves a transmembrane ion pump that is extremely important for cellular function. This sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺ pump) drives sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell. A large percentage of a cell's ATP powers this pump, because cellular processes bring considerable sodium into the cell and potassium out of it. The pump constantly works to stabilize cellular concentrations of sodium and potassium.

Often during cellular metabolic reactions, such as nutrient synthesis and breakdown, certain molecules must alter slightly in their conformation to become substrates for the next step in the reaction series. One example is during the very first steps of cellular respiration, when a sugar glucose molecule breaks down in glycolysis. In the first step, ATP is required to phosphorylate glucose, creating a high-energy but unstable intermediate. This phosphorylation reaction powers a conformational change that allows the phosphorylated glucose molecule to convert to the phosphorylated sugar fructose. Fructose is a necessary intermediate for glycolysis to move forward. Here, ATP hydrolysis' exergonic reaction couples with the endergonic reaction of converting glucose into a phosphorylated intermediate in the pathway. Once again, the energy released by breaking a phosphate bond within ATP was used for phosphorylyzing another molecule, creating an unstable intermediate and powering an important conformational change.

This text is adapted from Openstax, Biology 2e, Section 6.1: Energy and Metabolism , section 6.3: The Laws of Thermodynamics, and 6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate.

Procedure

Energy coupling occurs when a highly exergonic reaction powers an endergonic reaction. The combined reaction is called a coupled reaction.

Cells use coupled reactions to perform different processes, including biosynthesis, active transport of ions, and mechanical work. Hydrolysis of ATP is a frequently coupled exergonic reaction for powering biological processes.

For example, the endergonic reaction between glutamate and ammonia to form glutamine is coupled with the exergonic hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate.

The net free energy change for the coupled reaction is the sum of the individual free energy changes. Because of the large negative ΔG for the ATP hydrolysis, the total standard free energy change is negative 16.3 kJ/mol, and the reaction can proceed.

Coupled biosynthesis reactions often share a common unstable intermediate. In the biosynthesis of glutamine, the transfer of phosphate from ATP to glutamate forms the intermediate glutamyl phosphate, which then reacts with ammonia to form glutamine.